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Showing 1364 of 1364 headings

Occupation / heading	Type	Work class	Manual labour	Status	Brief description
Academy of cutting	Business / establishment	Service / education	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A school or training establishment teaching garment cutting, pattern cutting or related tailoring and dressmaking skills.
Accoucheuses	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Women who assisted mothers during childbirth; a historical term broadly corresponding to a midwife.
Account Book Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Account Book Manufacturers made bound ledgers, journals and other ruled account books for businesses and offices.
Accountants	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Accountants kept and examined financial records, prepared accounts and advised businesses or individuals on financial matters.
Accountants—Members of Corporation of Accountants	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Accountants—Members of Corporation of Accountants kept and examined financial records, prepared accounts and advised businesses or individuals on financial matters.
Accountants—Members of Institute of Public Accountants	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Accountants—Members of Institute of Public Accountants kept and examined financial records, prepared accounts and advised businesses or individuals on financial matters.
Actuaries	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Professional specialists who used mathematics and statistics to assess financial risk, particularly for insurance and long-term financial obligations.
Adjusters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for adjusters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Advertising advisers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Advertising advisers advised businesses on advertising strategy, placement, wording and promotion.
Advertising Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with advertising. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Advertising Contractors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for advertising contractors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Advertising Experts	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for advertising experts. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Aerated Water Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought aerated water machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Agents and Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who represented clients, arranged sales, purchases, finance or other transactions.
Agricultural Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in agricultural. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Agricultural Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agricultural engineers applied engineering knowledge to farming, agricultural machinery, drainage, irrigation and other rural systems. Their work could involve design, inspection, machinery, water management or practical improvements to agricultural production.
Agricultural Implement Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought agricultural implement into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Agricultural Implement Manufacturers and Depots	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured agricultural implement for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Agricultural Implement Sellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for agricultural implement sellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
American Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought american machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Ammonia (Anhydrous and Liquid) Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Ammonia (Anhydrous and Liquid) Manufacturers manufactured ammonia (anhydrous and liquid) for commercial sale or industrial use.
Analysts	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for analysts. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Analytical Chemists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Analytical chemists examined substances to determine their composition, purity or quality. Their work was used in areas such as mining, manufacturing, food, medicine and public health.
Anvil Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Anvil makers were skilled metalworkers who made and finished anvils for blacksmiths, farriers and other trades. The work involved shaping heavy iron or steel and preparing a durable working surface able to withstand repeated hammering.
Aquariums	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for aquariums. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Arbitrators	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Independent persons appointed to hear disputes and make decisions or settlements outside ordinary court proceedings.
Architects, Surveyors, and Civil Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Architects, surveyors and civil engineers were professional practitioners involved in designing buildings and infrastructure, measuring and mapping land, and supervising construction and public works. The exact duties varied according to the profession and period.
Architectural Modellers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for architectural modellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Art Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Art dealers bought and sold paintings, drawings, prints and other works of art. Some operated galleries or specialist shops, while others acted as agents between artists, collectors and buyers.
Art Decorators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for art decorators. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Art Furnishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for art furnishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Art Galleries	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for art galleries. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Art Metal Workers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Art Metal Workers produced decorative and functional objects in metals such as brass, copper, bronze or iron.
Art Needleworkers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for art needleworkers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Art Publishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for art publishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Art Students	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for art students. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Artificial Flower Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Artificial Flower Makers made artificial flower for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Artists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Artists produced visual art or commercial artwork, including painting, drawing, portraiture and decorative work.
Artists in Stained and Embossed Glass	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for artists in stained and embossed glass. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Artists' Colourmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Artists' Colourmen supplied artists with prepared pigments, paints, brushes, canvases and related materials.
Artists' Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought artists' material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Asbestos boiler covering manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured asbestos boiler covering for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Asbestos Goods Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured asbestos goods for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Asbestos Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured asbestos for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Asbestos Paint Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought asbestos paint into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Asphalt Manufacturers and Refiners	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured asphalt for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Asphalters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Workers who prepared and laid asphalt or bituminous material on roofs, yards, roads or pavements.
Assayers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Assayers tested ores and metals to determine the presence and proportion of valuable minerals such as gold or silver.
Assayers' bone ash	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Assayers' bone ash tested ores and metals to determine the presence and proportion of valuable minerals such as gold or silver.
Associations	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for associations. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Asylums	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for asylums. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Atlas Publishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for atlas publishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Attorneys, Conveyancers and Notaries	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Legal practitioners handling legal business, property transfers, documents and formal witnessing or certification.
Auctioneers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Auctioneers conducted public auctions of property, goods, livestock or other assets on behalf of sellers.
Auctioneers and Valuators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for auctioneers and valuators. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Auditors	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for auditors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Aurists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Medical practitioners specialising in diseases and treatment of the ear; an early specialist role now largely within ENT medicine.
Australian Wine Shops	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for australian wine shops. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Austrian and American chair importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Austrian and American chair importers imported and supplied austrian and american chair, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Baby Carriage Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured baby carriage for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Baby-linen Warehouses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for baby-linen warehouses. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bacon Curers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for bacon curers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bag Merchants and Manufacturers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured bag merchants and for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Baker's Peel Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Baker's Peel Makers made baker's peel for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Bakers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bakers made bread and other baked goods for sale, commonly working in a bakery with ovens and dough preparation equipment.
Baking Powder Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured baking powder for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Ballastmen	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Ballastmen handled, loaded or unloaded ballast used to stabilise ships, usually around wharves and ports.
Ballroom Decorators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ballroom decorators. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bamboo furniture manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured bamboo furniture for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Banks	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for banks. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Banks and Banking Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in banks and banking. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Banner Painters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for banner painters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bark Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bark Merchants bought and sold bark, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Barristers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Legal advocates who advised on law and represented clients in higher-court proceedings.
Barrow Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Barrow Makers made hand barrows, wheelbarrows and similar small carts for carrying goods or materials.
Baseball Goods Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought baseball goods into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Basket Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Basket Makers made basket, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Baths	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for baths. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Baths and Bathing Establishments	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for baths and bathing establishments. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Baths—Electric	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for baths—electric. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Baths—Turkish	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for baths—turkish. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bedding Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured bedding for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Bedstead and Bedding Warehouses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Commercial premises that stocked, displayed or sold bedstead and bedding.
Bedstead makers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Bedstead makers and importers manufactured or made and imported bedstead, supplying the local market through trade or retail channels.
Bee Farmers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for bee farmers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bee Goods Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought bee goods into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Beehive Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured beehive for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Beer Engine Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured beer engine for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Bellhangers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bellhangers installed mechanical bells and bell-pull systems and made, fitted or repaired locks and keys.
Bellhangers and Locksmiths	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bellhangers and Locksmiths installed mechanical bells and bell-pull systems and made, fitted or repaired locks and keys.
Bellows Maker	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Bellows Maker made bellows used to force air into fires, forges, furnaces and some domestic or industrial equipment.
Berlin wool depots	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Berlin wool depots”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Berlin Wool Warehouses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for berlin wool warehouses. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bevel-edge card gilders	Trade / industrial business	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Bevel-edge card gilders”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Bicycle Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought bicycle into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Bicycle manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Bicycle manufacturers manufactured bicycle for commercial sale or industrial use.
Bicycle parts and fittings importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought bicycle parts and fittings into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Bill Posters	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Pasted printed bills, advertisements and public notices onto walls, hoardings and designated posting places.
Billiard Appliance Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Billiard Appliance Makers made billiard appliance for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Billiard appliance manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Billiard appliance manufacturers manufactured billiard appliance for commercial sale or industrial use.
Billiard Ball Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Billiard Ball Makers made billiard ball for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Billiard Cue Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Billiard Cue Makers made billiard cue for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Billiard Saloons	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for billiard saloons. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Billiard Table Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Billiard Table Makers made billiard table, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Billiard-ball and cue makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Billiard-ball and cue makers made billiard-ball and cue for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Bird dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Bird dealers bought and sold bird, generally through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Bird Fanciers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bred, kept, exhibited or sold birds, often including cage birds and ornamental varieties.
Biscuit Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured biscuit for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Bitters Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured bitters for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Black ironworkers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Black ironworkers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Black Lead Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured black lead for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Blacking Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Rare / obsolete title	Blacking Manufacturers made black polish or coating, especially shoe blacking and similar preparations for leather or metal.
Blacksmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Blacksmiths forged and repaired iron goods using a forge, anvil and hand tools, serving transport, building and agricultural needs.
Blind Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Blind Makers made and fitted window blinds, shades and related window coverings.
Block and Tackle Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Block and Tackle Makers made block and tackle for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Blocks and tackle makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Blocks and tackle makers made blocks and tackle, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Bluemakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Bluemakers manufactured laundry blue or bluing, a colouring preparation used to counteract yellowing in white fabrics.
Board and Lodging Houses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Businesses providing furnished accommodation and meals to paying residents or travellers.
Boarding Establishments	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for boarding establishments. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Boards	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Boards”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Boat Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Boat Builders built and repaired small boats and watercraft, usually working in timber and marine fittings.
Boat Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Boat Proprietors”.
Bodegas	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Bodegas”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Boiler Composition Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Boiler Composition Makers made boiler composition for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Boiler covering importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Boiler covering importers imported and supplied boiler covering, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Boiler Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Boiler Makers made boiler, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Boiling-down Establishments	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for boiling-down establishments. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bolt, Nut and Rivet Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured bolt, nut and rivet for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Bond Warehouse Proprietors	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Bond Warehouse Proprietors”.
Bonded Stores	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Rare / obsolete title	Customs-controlled warehouses where imported goods could be stored before duty was paid.
Bone Mills	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Bone Mills processed animal bones into products such as fertiliser, bone meal or other industrial materials.
Bone-ash assayers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Bone-ash assayers tested ores and metals to determine the presence and proportion of valuable minerals such as gold or silver.
Bonnet box manufacturer	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Bonnet box manufacturer manufactured bonnet box as a commercial or workshop activity.
Bonnet Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bonnet Makers made bonnet, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Book Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with book. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Book Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought book into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Book Mounters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for book mounters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bookbinders	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bound printed sheets into books and repaired or rebound existing volumes.
Bookcase importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Bookcase importers imported and supplied bookcase, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Booksellers and Stationers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Booksellers and Stationers sold books and stationery, often also carrying paper, writing materials and printed goods.
Booksellers, Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for booksellers, wholesale. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Boot and Shoe Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought boot and shoe into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Boot and Shoe Makers and Sellers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as boot and shoe makers and sellers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Boot and Shoe Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured boot and shoe for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Boot Factories	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for boot factories. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Boot Upper Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured boot upper for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Boot-upper manufacturers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured boot-upper for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Bottle Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bottle Merchants bought and sold bottle, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Bottlers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for bottlers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Box and Packing Case Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Box and Packing Case Makers made box and packing case for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Box Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Box Makers made box for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Brass band instrument importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Brass band instrument importers imported and supplied brass band instrument, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Brass Finishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for brass finishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Brass Founders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as brass founders; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Brass Founders and Finishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for brass founders and finishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Brass Stamp Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured brass stamp for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Brass, copper, zinc and lead makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Brass, copper, zinc and lead makers made brass, copper, zinc and lead, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Brassware importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Brassware importers imported and supplied brassware, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Braziers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Metalworkers who made or repaired brass and copper goods, often using brazing and sheet-metal techniques.
Brewers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as brewers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Brewers' appliances—Importers of	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as brewers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Brewers' sundrymen	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as brewers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Brick manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Brick manufacturers manufactured brick for commercial sale or industrial use.
Brick Works, Steam	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Industrial premises or works carrying out the activity described by the Sands heading “Brick Works, Steam”.
Bricklayers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as bricklayers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Brickmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Brickmakers manufactured bricks from prepared clay, moulding and firing them for building work.
Brokers (See Agents) directory cross-reference	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Cross-reference heading	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as brokers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Brokers—General	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “General Brokers”.
Bronze Founders	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for bronze founders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Bronzers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Bronzers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Broom and Brushmakers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Broom and Brushmakers made broom and brushmakers, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Brush Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought brush into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Brush Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Brush Makers made brush, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Brush Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured brush for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Brushware importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Brushware importers imported and supplied brushware, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Bucket and Trough Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Bucket and Trough Makers made bucket and trough for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Constructed and managed building work, often coordinating several trades on houses and commercial premises.
Building Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in building. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Building companies and societies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for building companies and societies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Building Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought building material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Building Societies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for building societies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Building Surveyors	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for building surveyors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Business Agencies	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for business agencies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Business agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Business agents acted as agents or intermediaries in the business described by the historical directory heading “Business agents”.
Business Systematisers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Consultants who organised office routines, filing, accounting and business procedures to make commercial operations more systematic.
Butchers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Butchers prepared and sold meat, involving slaughtering or carcass breakdown, cutting and retail sale.
Butchers' Requisite Importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought butchers' requisite into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Butchers, Wholesale	Trade	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for butchers, wholesale. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Butchers, Wholesale and Carcase	Trade	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for butchers, wholesale and carcase. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Butchers—Carcase and wholesale	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Butchers—Carcase and wholesale prepared and sold meat, involving slaughtering or carcass breakdown, cutting and retail sale.
Butter Box Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured butter box for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Butter manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured butter for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Cab and Omnibus Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cab and Omnibus Proprietors owned and operated horse-drawn cabs or omnibus services for passenger transport.
Cab Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Cab Proprietors”.
Cabinet Makers and Upholsterers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as cabinet makers and upholsterers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Cabinetmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for cabinetmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Calico Bag Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured calico bag for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Candle Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Candle Makers made candle, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Caneworkers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for caneworkers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Canister Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Canister Makers made canister for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Canistermakers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Canistermakers made canistermakers, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Cardboard Box Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cardboard Box Makers made cardboard box for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Carpenters and Joiners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Carpenters and Joiners worked timber for buildings and fittings; carpenters handled structural work while joiners made finer fitted woodwork.
Carpet Renters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for carpet renters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Carpet Warehousemen	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for carpet warehousemen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Carpet Warehouses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Commercial premises that stocked, displayed or sold carpet.
Carriage and Buggy Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for carriage and buggy builders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Carriers and Forwarding Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Carriers and Forwarding Agents transported goods or arranged their onward shipment by road, rail, ship or other carriers.
Carvers and gilders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Carvers and gilders carved decorative work, applied gold leaf or gilded finishes, and made or decorated picture frames.
Carvers, Gilders and Picture Frame Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Carvers, Gilders and Picture Frame Makers carved decorative work, applied gold leaf or gilded finishes, and made or decorated picture frames.
Casemakers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Casemakers made casemakers, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Cash registers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Businesses supplying or servicing mechanical cash registers used to record retail sales and cash transactions.
Caterers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for caterers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Cattle Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cattle Dealers bought and sold cattle, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Cattle dealers and salesmen	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cattle dealers and salesmen bought and sold cattle, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Cattle Food Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cattle Food Makers made cattle food for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Cattle Salesmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for cattle salesmen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Cedar Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cedar Merchants bought and sold cedar, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Cement Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought cement into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Cement importers and manufacturers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured cement importers and for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Cement Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured cement for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Cemeteries	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for cemeteries. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chaff Cutters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for chaff cutters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chaff cutters and horse gear importers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought chaff cutters and horse gear into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Chair Caners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for chair caners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chair cleaners	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Chair cleaners”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Chairmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for chairmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chandelier Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought chandelier into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Chandelier Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Chandelier Makers made chandelier for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Chandelier makers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought chandelier makers and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Charcoal Burners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for charcoal burners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chart Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with chart. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Cheese Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured cheese for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Chemical importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Chemical importers imported and supplied chemical, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Chemical Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured chemical for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Chemists and Druggists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Chemists and Druggists prepared, compounded and sold medicines, chemicals and related goods; broadly a predecessor of the modern pharmacist.
Chemists, Analytical	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for chemists, analytical. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chemists, Homoeopathic	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for chemists, homoeopathic. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chemists, Wholesale	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for chemists, wholesale. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chemists—Wholesale and manufacturing	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for chemists—wholesale and manufacturing. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Chimney Cleaners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Chimney Cleaners removed soot and deposits from chimneys and flues to keep fires drawing safely.
Chimney sweepers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Chimney sweepers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
China, Earthenware and Glass Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	China, Earthenware and Glass Dealers bought and sold china, earthenware and glass, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
China, glass and earthenware importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	China, glass and earthenware importers imported and supplied china, glass and earthenware, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Chiropodists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Practitioners treating foot ailments such as corns, calluses and nail problems; broadly comparable with modern podiatry.
Chronometer Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Chronometer Makers made chronometer for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Church furniture—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for church furniture—importers of. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Churn Maker	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Churn Maker made churns and related vessels used to turn cream into butter.
Cider Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured cider for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Cigar manufacturers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Cigar manufacturers and importers manufactured or made and imported cigar, supplying the local market through trade or retail channels.
Civil Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Civil Engineers designed, supervised and assessed civil works such as roads, bridges, drainage, railways and infrastructure.
Clock Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Clock Makers made clock, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Cloth Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cloth Manufacturers manufactured cloth for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Clothiers and Outfitters	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Clothiers and Outfitters sold ready-made clothing and personal outfitting goods, sometimes also arranging tailoring.
Clothing Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured clothing for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Clubs	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for clubs. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coach and Carriage Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Coach and Carriage Builders built and repaired horse-drawn coaches, carriages and their bodies, frames and fittings.
Coach and Saddlers' Ironmongers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for coach and saddlers' ironmongers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coach Painters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for coach painters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coach Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Coach Proprietors”.
Coach, carriage, cab and buggy proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Cab Proprietors”.
Coachbuilders' ironmongers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Coachbuilders' ironmongers sold iron goods, hardware, tools, fastenings and household or building metalware.
Coachsmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for coachsmiths. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coal and colliery companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for coal and colliery companies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coal and Wood Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Coal and Wood Merchants bought and sold coal and wood, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Coal Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in coal. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Coal Contractors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for coal contractors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coal contractors and shipping agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with coal contractors and shipping. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Coal Shipping Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with coal shipping. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Cocoa and Chocolate Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured cocoa and chocolate for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Coffee Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought coffee into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Coffee Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Coffee Merchants bought and sold coffee, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Coffee Roasters	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as coffee roasters; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Coffee, &c., importers and merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for coffee, &c., importers and merchants. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Cold storage works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Cold storage works”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Collectors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Collectors collected debts, rents, subscriptions, accounts or other money on behalf of businesses or clients.
Colliery Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in colliery. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Colliery waggon manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Colliery waggon manufacturers manufactured colliery waggon for commercial sale or industrial use.
Colonial manufactured goods—Buyers of	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Colonial manufactured goods—Buyers of”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Comb and Brushmakers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Comb and Brushmakers made combs and brushes for personal, household or industrial use from materials such as bone, horn, wood and bristle.
Commercial Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Commercial Brokers”.
Commission Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commission Agents bought or sold goods and arranged transactions on behalf of others in return for a commission.
Commission Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commission Merchants bought and sold commission, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Commissioners for affidavits	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Commissioners for affidavits”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Commissioners for affidavits in the Vice-Admiralty Court	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Commissioners for affidavits in the Vice-Admiralty Court”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Companies—Miscellaneous	Directory category	Not applicable	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A directory catch-all for entries that did not fit one of the named trade or professional categories.
Condiment manufacturers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Condiment manufacturers and importers manufactured or made and imported condiment, supplying the local market through trade or retail channels.
Confectioners and Pastry Cooks	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as confectioners and pastry cooks; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Confectioners' requisites—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Confectioners' requisites—Importers of imported and supplied confectioners' requisites—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Confectioners, Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for confectioners, wholesale. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Confectioners, Wholesale and Retail	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for confectioners, wholesale and retail. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Confectioners—Manufacturing and importing	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for confectioners—manufacturing and importing. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Consuls	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for consuls. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Consulting Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to consulting. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Consulting Herbalists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for consulting herbalists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Contractors	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Undertook building, transport, public works or other jobs under contract for an agreed price.
Convents	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for convents. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coopers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as coopers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Copper Tooth Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Copper Tooth Makers made copper tooth for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Copperplate Engravers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for copperplate engravers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Copperplate Printers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for copperplate printers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Coppersmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Skilled metalworkers who made and repaired copper vessels, pipes, tanks and other copperware.
Copying (letter, &c.) machines	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Copying (letter, &c.) machines”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Copying Machine Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought copying machine into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Copyright Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with copyright. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Cordial and Aerated Water Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cordial and Aerated Water Manufacturers made cordials, flavoured soft drinks and carbonated or 'aerated' waters.
Cork growers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Cork growers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Cork manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Cork manufacturers manufactured cork for commercial sale or industrial use.
Cork Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cork Merchants bought and sold cork, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Cork merchants and manufacturers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cork merchants and manufacturers bought and sold cork, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Corn and Hay Factors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for corn and hay factors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Corn Flour Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured corn flour for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Corn-planting machinery importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought corn-planting machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Corn-sheller importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Corn-sheller importers imported and supplied corn-sheller, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Cornflour manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Cornflour manufacturers manufactured cornflour for commercial sale or industrial use.
Costumiers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for costumiers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Cotton manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Cotton manufacturers manufactured cotton for commercial sale or industrial use.
Cotton Spinners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for cotton spinners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Cricketing and lawn tennis depots	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Cricketing and lawn tennis depots”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Crown Lands Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Crown Lands Agents acted as agents or intermediaries in the business described by the historical directory heading “Crown Lands Agents”.
Curiosities Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Curiosities Dealers bought and sold curiosities, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Curiosities—Dealers in	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Curiosities—Dealers in bought and sold curiosities, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Curled Hair Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Curled Hair Makers prepared and curled animal hair for use as stuffing in mattresses, furniture and upholstery.
Curled hair manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured curled hair for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Curriers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Curriers finished tanned hides by dressing, colouring, oiling and preparing leather for use by saddlers, shoemakers and other trades.
Custom House Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Specialists who handled customs paperwork, duties and clearance of imported or exported goods; similar to customs brokers.
Cutlers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for cutlers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Cutlers & Surgical Instrument Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Cutlers & Surgical Instrument Makers made, sharpened or sold knives and cutting tools, including precision instruments used by surgeons.
Dairies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	A directory category for businesses or premises operating as dairies.
Dairy machinery importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought dairy machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Dairy Produce Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Dairy Produce Dealers bought and sold dairy produce, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Dairykeepers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for dairykeepers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Dancing Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in dancing, privately or through schools and academies.
Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Dealers bought and sold art, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Dealers and Furniture Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as dealers and furniture brokers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Dealers in Engravings and Paintings	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for dealers in engravings and paintings. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Debating societies	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Debating societies”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Debt Collectors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for debt collectors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Decorators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for decorators. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Dental Depots	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for dental depots. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Dentists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Dentists treated teeth and oral problems, including extractions, dentures and other dental work.
Dentists' Material Importers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought dentists' material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Dermatologists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for dermatologists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Diamond Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Diamond Merchants bought and sold diamond, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Diamond Mounters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for diamond mounters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Diamond Setters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for diamond setters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Die Sinkers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Engraved or cut hardened dies and punches used to stamp coins, medals, badges, printing work and manufactured items.
Directories	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Directories”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Discount Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in discount. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Distillery	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	A directory category for businesses or premises operating as distillery.
District Court Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents who handled procedural or administrative business for clients in relation to the District Court, often where a solicitor was not directly acting.
Door and Fly Screen Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured door and fly screen for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Draftsmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for draftsmen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Drainers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for drainers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Drapers and Haberdashers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Drapers and Haberdashers sold cloth, textiles, sewing goods, ribbons, buttons and related clothing or household notions.
Drapers, Family	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Drapers, Family”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Drapers, Furnishing	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Drapers, Furnishing”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Drapers, Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Drapers, Wholesale supplied cloth and drapery goods in bulk to retailers, manufacturers and other businesses.
Draughtsmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for draughtsmen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Drawing Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in drawing, privately or through schools and academies.
Dray and Van Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Dray and Van Proprietors owned and operated drays, vans and cartage businesses used to move goods around a town or district.
Dray proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Dray proprietors owned and operated drays, vans and cartage businesses used to move goods around a town or district.
Dress Makers and Milliners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as dress makers and milliners; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Dress Paper Pattern Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Dress Paper Pattern Makers made dress paper pattern for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Drill (seed) importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Drill (seed) importers imported and supplied drill (seed), usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Druggists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Druggists prepared, compounded and sold medicines, chemicals and related goods; broadly a predecessor of the modern pharmacist.
Druggists (wholesale)	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Druggists (wholesale) prepared, compounded and sold medicines, chemicals and related goods; broadly a predecessor of the modern pharmacist.
Dry colours importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Dry colours importers imported and supplied dry colours, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Drysalters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Merchants dealing in chemicals, dyes, gums, oils, preserved goods and other dry industrial or trade materials.
Dumbbell and Indian club maker	Business / establishment	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Dumbbell and Indian club maker made dumbbell and indian club, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Dyers and Scourers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Dyers and Scourers dyed cloth or garments and cleaned textiles by scouring out grease, dirt and stains.
Earthenware dealers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Earthenware dealers and importers imported and supplied earthenware dealers and, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Eastern merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Eastern merchants bought and sold eastern produce, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Eastern Produce Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Eastern Produce Merchants bought and sold eastern produce, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Eating Houses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	A directory category for businesses or premises operating as eating houses.
Ecclesiastical metal workers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ecclesiastical metal workers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ecclesiastical Metalworkers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ecclesiastical metalworkers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Educational book sellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Educational book sellers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Educational Booksellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for educational booksellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Electric and Medicated Baths	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for electric and medicated baths. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Electric Appliance Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured electric appliance for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Electric Bell Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured electric bell for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Electric Light Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in electric light. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Electric light companies, contractors and inventors	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Undertook building, transport, public works or other jobs under contract for an agreed price.
Electric Light Contractors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for electric light contractors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Electric Light Inventors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for electric light inventors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Electric, mechanical and manufacturing engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for electric, mechanical and manufacturing engineers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Electricians	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for electricians. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Electro Platers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Electro Platers applied a thin metal coating to objects by electrolysis, for protection, appearance or wear resistance.
Electroplate merchants and manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Electroplate merchants and manufacturers manufactured electroplate merchants and for commercial sale or industrial use.
Electroplaters	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Electroplaters”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Electrotypers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Electrotypers made durable duplicate printing plates or metal facsimiles by electro-deposition.
Embalmers	Trade / service occupation	Skilled service / manual	Medium–High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Embalmers prepared and preserved deceased persons for funerals and burial, often working with undertakers or funeral directors.
Embossers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for embossers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Embroiderers, Bullion and Silk	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for embroiderers, bullion and silk. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Emery Cloth Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Emery Cloth Makers made emery cloth for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Enamel iron bath and sanitary ware importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Enamel iron bath and sanitary ware importers imported and supplied enamel iron bath and sanitary ware, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Enamel Sign Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought enamel sign into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Enamel Sign Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured enamel sign for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Enamel ware importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Enamel ware importers imported and supplied enamel ware, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Enamellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for enamellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Encaustic tile manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured encaustic tile for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Engine and boiler importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Engine and boiler importers imported and supplied engine and boiler, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Engine Packing Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured engine packing for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Engineers and mining machinery importers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought engineers and mining machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Engineers' Importers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought engineers' into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Engineers' Ironmongers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to ' ironmongers. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers' supplies—Importers of	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to ' supplies—importers of. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers, Boiler Makers, &c.	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineering and heavy-metal trades involved in machinery, boilers, fabrication, fitting and industrial repair.
Engineers—Agricultural	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to agricultural. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Consulting	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to consulting. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Dairy	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Engineers—Dairy”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Engineers—Electrical	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Engineers—Electrical”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Engineers—Hydraulic	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to hydraulic. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Mechanical	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to mechanical. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Milling	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to milling. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Mining	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to mining. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Printers'	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to printers'. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Refrigerating	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Engineers—Refrigerating”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Engineers—Sanitary	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to sanitary. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Engineers—Steam	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Engineers—Steam”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Engravers and Die Sinkers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engravers and Die Sinkers cut lettering, designs or images into metal and produced dies or punches for printing and manufacturing.
Engravers and Lithographers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for engravers and lithographers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Engravers on Brass	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for engravers on brass. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Engravers on Copper	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for engravers on copper. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Engravers' Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought engravers' material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Engravers—Brassplate, &c.	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Engravers—Brassplate, &c.”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Engravers—Process	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for engravers—process. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Engravers—Wood	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for engravers—wood. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Engravings and paintings—Dealers in	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for engravings and paintings—dealers in. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Estate Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Estate Agents acted as commercial representatives or intermediaries in estate-related business.
Exchanges	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Exchanges”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Explosive Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in explosive. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Exporters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Exporters”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Fancy Bazaars	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	A directory category for businesses or premises operating as fancy bazaars.
Fancy Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fancy Dealers bought and sold fancy, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Fancy goods importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Fancy goods importers imported and supplied fancy goods, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Fancy goods repositories	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Fancy goods repositories”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Fancy Tile Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought fancy tile into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Farmers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for farmers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Farriers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Farriers cared for horses' hooves and made, fitted and replaced horseshoes.
Feather Cleaners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for feather cleaners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Fellmongers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Fellmongers processed sheep skins, commonly removing wool from skins before tanning and handling hide, wool and animal by-products.
Ferry Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in ferry. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Ferrymen	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ferrymen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
File Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought file into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
File Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured file for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Filing Systems	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Suppliers or specialists in office filing equipment and organised record-keeping systems.
Filter makers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Filter makers and importers manufactured or made and imported filter, supplying the local market through trade or retail channels.
Finance Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in finance. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Financial Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with financial. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Financiers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for financiers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Fine Art Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fine Art Dealers bought and sold fine art, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Fine art repositories	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Fine art repositories”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Fire Appliance Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought fire appliance into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Fire Appliance Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured fire appliance for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Fire appliance manufacturers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured fire appliance for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Fire Brigades	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for fire brigades. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Fire Loss Adjusters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for fire loss adjusters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Fireproof Safe Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with fireproof safe. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Fireworks—Importers of	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Fireworks—Importers of imported and supplied fireworks—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Fish and Oyster Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fish and Oyster Dealers bought and sold fish and oyster, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Fishing Tackle Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fishing Tackle Makers made fishing tackle for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Fishmongers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for fishmongers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Flag and Emblem Painters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for flag and emblem painters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Flag makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Flag makers made flag, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Floating Docks	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for floating docks. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Floating docks and engineering works	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for floating docks and engineering works. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Flock and Bedding Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured flock and bedding for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Flooring Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured flooring for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Flooring manufacturers and hearth tile importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured flooring for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Florists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for florists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Flour Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Flour Merchants bought and sold flour, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Fluid and Detergent Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured fluid and detergent for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Fly Screen Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured fly screen for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Football Goods Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought football goods into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Foreign Stamp Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought foreign stamp into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Forwarding Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with forwarding. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Free Stores	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for free stores. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Freezing works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Freezing works”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
French Boot Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought french boot into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
French Polishers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	French Polishers applied shellac-based French polish to furniture and timber surfaces to create a smooth, glossy finish.
French tile importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	French tile importers imported and supplied french tile, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Fruit merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Fruit merchants bought and sold fruit, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Fruit Preservers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for fruit preservers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Fruiterers and Greengrocers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fruiterers and Greengrocers sold fresh fruit and vegetables, usually from a specialist shop or market stall.
Fruiterers—Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for fruiterers—wholesale. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Fruitgrowers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for fruitgrowers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Fuel Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fuel Merchants bought and sold fuel, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Funeral directors	Commercial / service occupation	Service / owner-operator	Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Businesses or practitioners arranging funerals, preparation of the deceased, transport and burial; broadly the modern funeral director.
Furnishing warehouses	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Furnishing warehouses”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Furniture Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Furniture Dealers bought and sold furniture, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Furniture Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought furniture into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Furniture Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured furniture for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Furniture Warehousemen	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for furniture warehousemen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Furriers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for furriers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Galvanised Iron Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought galvanised iron into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Galvanized Iron and Zinc Workers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fabricated, installed or repaired sheet-metal goods made from galvanised iron or zinc, often for roofs, tanks and building fittings.
Galvanized iron importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Galvanized iron importers imported and supplied galvanized iron, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Galvanizers and tinners	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Galvanizers and tinners”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Gardeners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as gardeners; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Gardeners—Landscape	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as gardeners; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Gardeners—Market	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as gardeners; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Gas Chandelier and Bracket Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought gas chandelier and bracket into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Gas chandeliers and bracket importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought gas chandeliers and bracket into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Gas Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in gas. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Gas Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to gas. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Gas Fittings Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought gas fittings into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Gas Lamp Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured gas lamp for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Gas Stove Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Gas Stove Makers made gas stove for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Gas-stove makers and importers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought gas-stove makers and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Gasfitters and Plumbers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Gasfitters and Plumbers installed and repaired gas pipes and fittings as well as water, drainage and plumbing systems.
Gasfittings—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Gasfittings—Importers of imported and supplied gasfittings—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Gauge Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Gauge Makers made gauge for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
General Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	General Agents acted as commercial representatives or intermediaries in general-related business.
General Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “General Brokers”.
German Sausage Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured german sausage for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Ginger Beer Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Ginger Beer Manufacturers manufactured ginger beer for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Girder Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Girder Makers made girder for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Glass and China Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Glass and China Dealers bought and sold glass and china, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Glass and china riveting and general repairing depot	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Glass and china riveting and general repairing depot”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Glass bevellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Glass bevellers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Glass bottle manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Glass bottle manufacturers manufactured glass for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Glass Embossers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for glass embossers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Glass Letter Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought glass letter into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Glass Letter Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured glass letter for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Glass Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Glass Manufacturers manufactured glass for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Glass Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Glass Merchants bought and sold glass, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Glass Riveter	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Glass Riveter repaired cracked or broken glass, china or similar objects by drilling and securing pieces with small metal rivets or staples.
Glass Shade Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought glass shade into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Glass shade warehouses	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Glass shade warehouses”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Glass Silverers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for glass silverers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Glass Stainers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for glass stainers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Glass, china and earthenware importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Glass, china and earthenware importers imported and supplied glass, china and earthenware, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Glassfitters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for glassfitters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Glassware importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought glassware into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Glazed and enamelled tile manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured glazed and enamelled tile for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Glaziers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as glaziers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Glue Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Glue Makers made glue for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Gluemakers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Gluemakers made gluemakers, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Gold thread embroiderers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Gold thread embroiderers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Goldsmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for goldsmiths. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Grain and Produce Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Grain and Produce Merchants bought and sold grain and produce, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Grain Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Grain Brokers”.
Granite Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Granite Merchants bought and sold granite, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Granolithic Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured granolithic for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Gravel merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Gravel merchants bought and sold gravel, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Graziers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for graziers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Grinders	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Grinders”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Grindery Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Rare / obsolete title	Grindery Dealers sold small materials and fittings used particularly in shoemaking and leather trades, such as nails, thread, eyelets and tools.
Grindery merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Grindery merchants bought and sold grindery, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Grindery Warehousemen	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Rare / obsolete title	The Sands directory used this heading for grindery warehousemen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Grocers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Grocers sold food staples and household groceries from a retail shop.
Grocers, Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Grocers, Wholesale supplied groceries and food staples in bulk to retailers and other businesses.
Gun Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Gun Makers made, repaired, fitted or modified firearms and their mechanical parts.
Gunsmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for gunsmiths. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Gutter and ridge makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Gutter and ridge makers made gutter and ridge, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Gymnasiums	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for gymnasiums. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Gymnastic Appliance Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Gymnastic Appliance Makers made gymnastic appliance for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Gypsum manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Gypsum manufacturers manufactured gypsum for commercial sale or industrial use.
Haberdashers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for haberdashers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Habitmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for habitmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hair Dressers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Hair Dressers cut, dressed and styled hair; many businesses also performed barbering and grooming services.
Hair Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured hair for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Hair Workers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for hair workers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hairdressers and Perfumers	Trade	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for hairdressers and perfumers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hairdressers' Sundriesmen	Trade	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for hairdressers' sundriesmen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Halls and Places of Amusement	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for halls and places of amusement. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ham and Beef Shops	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ham and beef shops. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hammer Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured hammer for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Hardware and Metal Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Hardware and Metal Brokers”.
Hardware Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought hardware into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Hardware Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Hardware Merchants bought and sold hardware, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Harness Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Harness Makers made harness, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Harrow makers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Harrow makers and importers manufactured or made and imported harrow, supplying the local market through trade or retail channels.
Harvest Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought harvest machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Harvesting machinery importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought harvesting machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Hatmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for hatmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hatmakers and hatters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for hatmakers and hatters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hatters and Cap Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Hatters and Cap Makers made, shaped, repaired or sold hats and caps.
Hay and Corn Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Hay and Corn Dealers bought and sold hay and corn, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Hay and Corn Stores	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for hay and corn stores. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hemp Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured hemp for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Herbalists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Herbalists prepared or sold plant-based remedies and advised customers on their traditional medicinal use.
Herbalists—Consulting	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for herbalists—consulting. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hide merchants and brokers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Hide merchants and brokers bought and sold hide, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Homoeopathic Chemists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Homoeopathic Chemists prepared and sold homoeopathic remedies and related medicines.
Homoeopathic physicians	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Homoeopathic physicians”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Homoeopathists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for homoeopathists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Honey merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Honey merchants bought and sold honey, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Hop Beer Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured hop beer for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Hop beer manufacturers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured hop beer for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Hop Bitters Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured hop bitters for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Horse and Cattle Condiment Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured horse and cattle condiment for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Horse Bootmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for horse bootmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Horse Clippers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for horse clippers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Horse Dealers & Livery Stable Keepers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Horse Dealers & Livery Stable Keepers bought and sold horses and operated stables that boarded or hired out horses and vehicles.
Horse Feed Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Horse Feed Makers made horse feed for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Horse Gear Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought horse gear into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Horse Trainers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for horse trainers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Horsehair drafters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Horsehair drafters”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Horsehair Upholsterers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for horsehair upholsterers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Horseshoe Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured horseshoe for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Horticultural Implement Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought horticultural implement into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Hosepipe makers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Hosepipe makers and importers manufactured or made and imported hosepipe, supplying the local market through trade or retail channels.
Hosiers and Glovers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Hosiers and Glovers made or sold hosiery such as stockings and socks, together with gloves.
Hospitals	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for hospitals. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hotel brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Hotel brokers acted as brokers arranging commercial transactions in the field described by the historical directory heading “Hotel brokers”.
Hotel Keepers and Public Houses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	A directory category for businesses or premises operating as hotel keepers and public houses.
House and Estate Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	House and Estate Agents acted as commercial representatives or intermediaries in house and estate-related business.
House Decorators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for house decorators. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
House, Land and Estate Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with house, land and estate. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Household Appliance Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought household appliance into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Household Furnishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for household furnishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Hydraulic Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to hydraulic. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Hydraulic power company	Business / establishment	Industrial / utility	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A company supplying hydraulic power, typically through pressurised water networks used to drive lifts, cranes and industrial machinery.
Hydropathic Establishments	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for hydropathic establishments. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ice Chest Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured ice chest for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Ice Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured ice for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Ice Safe Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured ice safe for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Ice-chest and refrigerator manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured ice-chest and refrigerator for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Illuminators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Decorated manuscripts, certificates, addresses or printed work with ornamental lettering, colour and sometimes gold leaf.
Illuminators and writers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Decorated manuscripts, certificates, addresses or printed work with ornamental lettering, colour and sometimes gold leaf.
Importers and Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers and Merchants bought and sold importers and, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Importers of Building Materials	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers of Building Materials imported and sold building products and construction materials to builders, tradespeople and merchants.
Importers, General	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for importers, general. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Incandescent lamp makers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought incandescent lamp makers and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Incubator Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought incubator into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Incubator Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Incubator Makers made incubator for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Incubator manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Incubator manufacturers manufactured incubator for commercial sale or industrial use.
Indent Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Commercial agents who obtained imported goods to order from overseas suppliers, often working on commission.
Indent Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Indent Merchants bought and sold indent, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Indentors and indent merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Indentors and indent merchants bought and sold indent, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
India-rubber Goods Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured india-rubber goods for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Indiarubber goods merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Indiarubber goods merchants bought and sold indiarubber goods, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Ink Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured ink for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Institutes	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Institutes”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Institutions	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for institutions. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Insurance Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Insurance Agents acted as commercial representatives or intermediaries in insurance-related business.
Insurance Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Insurance Brokers”.
Interpreters	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for interpreters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Invalid Chair Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Invalid Chair Makers made invalid chair for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Invalids' chairmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for invalids' chairmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Investment Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in investment. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Iron Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with iron. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Iron and steel merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Iron and steel merchants bought and sold iron, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Iron Bedstead Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Iron Bedstead Makers made iron bedstead, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Iron Founders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Iron Founders melted iron and cast it in moulds to make machinery parts, fittings, tools and structural components.
Iron Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Iron Merchants bought and sold iron, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Iron pipe importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Iron pipe importers imported and supplied iron pipe, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Iron Railing Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured iron railing for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Iron roofing—Manufacturers of	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Iron roofing—Manufacturers of manufactured iron roofing—manufacturers of for commercial sale or industrial use.
Ironmongers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Ironmongers sold iron goods, hardware, tools, fastenings and household or building metalware.
Ironmongers, Engineers'	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to ironmongers, '. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Ironmongers, Furnishing	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ironmongers, furnishing. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ironmongers, General	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ironmongers, general. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ironmongers, Manufacturing	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ironmongers, manufacturing. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ironmongers, Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ironmongers, wholesale. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ironmongers—Blacksmiths'	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Ironmongers—Blacksmiths' forged and repaired iron goods using a forge, anvil and hand tools, serving transport, building and agricultural needs.
Ironmongers—Builders'	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Constructed and managed building work, often coordinating several trades on houses and commercial premises.
Ironmongers—Coach and Saddlers'	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ironmongers—coach and saddlers'. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Ironmongers—Wholesale and retail	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Ironmongers—Wholesale and retail sold iron goods, hardware, tools, fastenings and household or building metalware.
Ironmongery importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Ironmongery importers imported and supplied ironmongery, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Ironworkers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Ironworkers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Ivory Turners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ivory turners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Jam Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured jam for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Japan and China goods importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Japan and China goods importers imported and supplied japan and china goods, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Japanners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for japanners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Jewellers' material importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Jewellers' material importers imported and supplied jewellers' material, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Jewellers, Watch and Clock Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Jewellers, Watch and Clock Makers made jewellers, watch and clock, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Jewellers, Wholesale and Manufacturing	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for jewellers, wholesale and manufacturing. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Jewellers—Masonic	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for jewellers—masonic. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Jewellery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought jewellery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Job Warehousemen	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for job warehousemen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Joiners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Joiners made fitted and finished timber components such as doors, windows, stairs, cabinets and interior woodwork.
Joinery Works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Industrial premises or works carrying out the activity described by the Sands heading “Joinery Works”.
Joinery Works, Steam	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Industrial premises or works carrying out the activity described by the Sands heading “Joinery Works, Steam”.
Justices of the Peace	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Justices of the Peace”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Kerosene Oil Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in kerosene oil. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Kerosene Oil Manufacturers & Sellers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Kerosene Oil Manufacturers & Sellers produced, processed, distributed or retailed kerosene and related lamp oils.
Label Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought label into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Labor (See Registry Offices) directory cross-reference	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Cross-reference heading	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as labor; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Labour Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with labour. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Lace Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured lace for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Ladder and Barrow Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Ladder and Barrow Makers made ladder and barrow for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Ladder Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Ladder Makers made ladder, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Ladies' Nurses	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ladies' nurses. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Lamp and Oil Sellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for lamp and oil sellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Lamp Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought lamp into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Lamp Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured lamp for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Land agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with land. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Land Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in land. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Landscape Gardeners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for landscape gardeners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Language Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in language, privately or through schools and academies.
Lapidaries	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lapidaries cut, shaped and polished gemstones and ornamental stones for jewellery and decorative use.
Laundresses	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for laundresses. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Laundries	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for laundries. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Laundry Requisite Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought laundry requisite into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Laundry requisites—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Laundry requisites—Importers of imported and supplied laundry requisites—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Law Stationers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Law Stationers supplied specialised stationery, forms, document papers and copying materials used by lawyers and courts.
Law Writers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for law writers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Law-book sellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Law-book sellers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Lawn Tennis Goods Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lawn Tennis Goods Makers made lawn tennis goods for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Lawn tennis requisite makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lawn tennis requisite makers made lawn tennis requisite for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Lead Head Nail Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lead Head Nail Makers made lead head nail for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Lead Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lead Merchants bought and sold lead, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Leather bag manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Leather bag manufacturers manufactured leather bag for commercial sale or industrial use.
Leather Belting Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought leather belting into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Leather Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Leather Brokers”.
Leather Cutters and Sellers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Leather Cutters and Sellers cut leather to pattern and sold prepared leather for shoemaking, saddlery, upholstery and other trades.
Leather dressers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Leather dressers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Leather Factors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for leather factors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Leather factors, merchants and grindery dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Rare / obsolete title	Leather factors, merchants and grindery dealers sold small materials and fittings used particularly in shoemaking and leather trades, such as nails, thread, eyelets and tools.
Leather Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Leather Merchants bought and sold leather, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Letter-writing Machine Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought letter-writing machine into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Libraries	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for libraries. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Lightermen, Ballastmen and Stevedores	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Waterside workers who moved cargo by lighter or barge, handled ship ballast and loaded or unloaded ships.
Lightning rods	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Lightning rods”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Lime and Cement Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lime and Cement Merchants bought and sold lime and cement, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Lime Burners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for lime burners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Lime Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lime Merchants bought and sold lime, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Lime merchants, burners and dealers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for lime merchants, burners and dealers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Linendrapers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for linendrapers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Lithographers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lithographers printed images and text from prepared stone or metal plates using the lithographic printing process.
Lithographers (photo.)	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Lithographers (photo.) printed images and text from prepared stone or metal plates using the lithographic printing process.
Lithographic Photographers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for lithographic photographers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Livery and breeching makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Livery and breeching makers made livery and breeching, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Livery Stables	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	A directory category for businesses or premises operating as livery stables.
Loan and Discount Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in loan and discount. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Locksmiths	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Locksmiths made, fitted and repaired locks, keys and related security hardware.
Locomotive Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for locomotive builders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Lodging Houses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Premises offering rooms or beds for payment, usually without the full services of a hotel.
Lubricating Compound Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured lubricating compound for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Lunatic Asylums	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for lunatic asylums. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Machine Belting Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Machine Belting Makers made machine belting for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Machine Rulers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Machine Rulers operated ruling machines that printed or drew straight lines on paper for ledgers, account books, forms and stationery.
Machinery Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with machinery. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Machinery Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Machinery Brokers”.
Machinery brokers and agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who represented clients, arranged sales, purchases, finance or other transactions.
Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Machinery Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Machinery Merchants bought and sold machinery, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Machinery merchants and importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Machinery merchants and importers bought and sold importers and, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Machinists	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Machinists made machinists & agricultural implement, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Machinists & Agricultural Implement Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Machinists & Agricultural Implement Makers made machinists & agricultural implement, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Maize Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured maize for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Maizena manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Maizena manufacturers manufactured maizena for commercial sale or industrial use.
Malt and Hop Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Malt and Hop Merchants bought and sold malt and hop, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Maltsters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for maltsters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mangle Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought mangle into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Mangles importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Mangles importers imported and supplied mangles, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Mantle Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mantle Makers made mantle for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Mantlepiece (marble)—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for mantlepiece (marble)—importers of. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Manufacturers' agents	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Manufacturers' agents manufactured sewing machine agents & for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Manufacturing Chemists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for manufacturing chemists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Manufacturing Confectioners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for manufacturing confectioners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Manufacturing Jewellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for manufacturing jewellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Map mounters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Map mounters”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Map Publishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for map publishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Map Report Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with map report. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Marble Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought marble into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Marble Mantelpiece Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought marble mantelpiece into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Marble Mantelpiece Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Marble Mantelpiece Makers made marble mantelpiece for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Marble manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Marble manufacturers manufactured marble for commercial sale or industrial use.
Marble masons, &c.	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Marble masons, &c. cut, laid and repaired stone or masonry for buildings, walls, monuments and other structures.
Marble Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Marble Merchants bought and sold marble, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Marine Surveyors	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Inspected ships, cargoes or marine equipment and reported on condition, seaworthiness, damage or value.
Market Gardeners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for market gardeners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Markets	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Markets”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Masonic Jewellers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for masonic jewellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Masons	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Masons cut, laid and repaired stone or masonry for buildings, walls, monuments and other structures.
Massage establishments	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Massage establishments”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Mast and blockmakers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Mast and blockmakers made mast and blockmakers, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Mast, Block and Pump Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mast, Block and Pump Makers made ship masts, pulley blocks and pumps used aboard sailing and steam vessels.
Mat and matting manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Mat and matting manufacturers manufactured mat and matting for commercial sale or industrial use.
Mat Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mat Makers made mat for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Mathematical and Nautical Instrument Makers and Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mathematical and Nautical Instrument Makers and Importers made or supplied precision instruments used for surveying, navigation, astronomy, drawing and scientific measurement.
Mathematical Instrument Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mathematical Instrument Makers made mathematical instrument for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Mattress Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mattress Makers made mattress for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Meat packers and exporters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Meat packers and exporters”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Meat Preservers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for meat preservers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mechanical Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to mechanical. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Medallists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for medallists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Medical Glassware Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought medical glassware into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Medical practitioners	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Medical practitioners”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Mercantile Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Mercantile Brokers”.
Mercers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for mercers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mercers—Men's	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for mercers—men's. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Merchants and Importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Merchants and Importers imported goods and traded them wholesale or commercially, often representing overseas suppliers.
Messenger companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A business or company operating in the field described by the historical directory heading “Messenger companies”.
Metal Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with metal. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Metal Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Metal Brokers”.
Metal ceiling manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Metal ceiling manufacturers manufactured metal ceiling for commercial sale or industrial use.
Metal Engravers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for metal engravers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Metal lathing manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Metal lathing manufacturers manufactured metal lathing for commercial sale or industrial use.
Metal Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Metal Merchants bought and sold metal, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Metal Workers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for metal workers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Metallurgists	Profession	Technical / professional	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Specialists in metals and their extraction, composition, testing and industrial treatment.
Midwives	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Midwives provided care and assistance to women during pregnancy, childbirth and the immediate postnatal period.
Milk Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in milk. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Milk companies and vendors	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for milk companies and vendors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Milk Vendors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for milk vendors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mill Belt and Hose Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mill Belt and Hose Makers made mill belt and hose for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Mill Belt Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mill Belt Makers made mill belt for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Mill Furnishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for mill furnishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mill-belt manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Mill-belt manufacturers manufactured mill-belt for commercial sale or industrial use.
Millers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Millers operated mills that ground grain or processed other materials using powered milling machinery.
Milliners	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Milliners designed, made, trimmed and sold women's hats and headwear.
Milling Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to milling. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Millwrights	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Millwrights installed, aligned, repaired and maintained mill machinery, shafts, gears and other heavy mechanical equipment.
Mine owners and investors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Mine owners and investors”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Mineral Water Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured mineral water for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Mineral water requisites—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Mineral water requisites—Importers of imported and supplied mineral water requisites—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Mining Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Represented mining interests, claims, companies or investors and arranged mining-related business or transactions.
Mining Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in mining. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Mining Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to mining. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Mining Experts	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for mining experts. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mining Investors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for mining investors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mining Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought mining machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Mining Machinery Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mining Machinery Merchants bought and sold mining machinery, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Mining machinery merchants and importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Mining machinery merchants and importers bought and sold importers and, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Mining machinists	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Mining machinists”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Mining Surveyors	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for mining surveyors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Miscellaneous	Directory category	Not applicable	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A directory catch-all for entries that did not fit one of the named trade or professional categories.
Modellers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for modellers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Modellers and Sculptors	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Modellers and Sculptors created three-dimensional models, sculpture and ornamental forms in clay, plaster, stone, metal or other materials.
Money Lenders	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for money lenders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Monumental Marble Masons	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for monumental marble masons. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Mortgage Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in mortgage. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Moulding importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought moulding into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Mowing machinery importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought mowing machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Museums	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for museums. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Music Sellers and Musical Instrument Makers and Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as music sellers and musical instrument makers and importers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Music sellers and musical instrument warehouses	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Music sellers and musical instrument warehouses”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Music Stool Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Music Stool Makers made music stool for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Music Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in music, privately or through schools and academies.
Nail and Washer Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured nail and washer for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Naturalists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for naturalists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Nautical Instrument Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Nautical Instrument Makers made nautical instrument for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Naval Architects	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for naval architects. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Navigation Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in navigation, privately or through schools and academies.
Needle and Fish-hook Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with needle and fish-hook. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Needlework Repositories	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for needlework repositories. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
News and Advertising Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	News and Advertising Agents handled newspaper distribution, subscriptions or the placing and sale of advertising.
Newsagents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for newsagents. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Newspaper Advertising Agencies	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for newspaper advertising agencies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Newspaper Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Newspaper Proprietors owned and operated newspaper-related businesses or services.
Newspapers and periodicals	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Newspapers and periodicals”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Nickel platers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Nickel platers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Nickelplaters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for nickelplaters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Nightmen	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Nightmen removed 'night soil' and other waste from privies, cesspits and sanitary pans, usually at night before modern sewerage.
Notaries (See Legal Directory) directory cross-reference	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Cross-reference heading	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as notaries; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Notaries public	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Legal practitioners handling legal business, property transfers, documents and formal witnessing or certification.
Noxious Weed Destroyers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for noxious weed destroyers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Nurserymen, Seedsmen and Florists	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Nurserymen, Seedsmen and Florists grew and sold plants, seeds and flowers for gardens, agriculture, decoration and landscaping.
Nurses	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for nurses. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Nut and Bolt Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Nut and Bolt Makers made nut and bolt for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Oar and Scull Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Oar and Scull Makers made oar and scull for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Oculists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for oculists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Office Experts and Advisers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Commercial consultants advising on office organisation, administration, systems and equipment.
Office Furniture Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought office furniture into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Official Assignees	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Officials or practitioners who administered insolvent or bankrupt estates and distributed assets to creditors.
Oil and colour merchants and importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Oil and colour merchants and importers bought and sold importers and, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Oil and Colourmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Oil and Colourmen sold paints, pigments, oils, varnishes and related decorating or finishing materials.
Oil and Grease Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured oil and grease for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Oil and vapour engines	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Oil and vapour engines”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Oil merchants and importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Oil merchants and importers bought and sold importers and, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Oilskin Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Oilskin Makers made oilskin for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Omnibus Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Omnibus Proprietors owned and operated omnibus passenger services, usually horse-drawn in the period represented by these directories.
Ophthalmic opticians	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Ophthalmic opticians supplied optical instruments and spectacles and, depending on period and practitioner, tested or advised on vision.
Optical and Scientific Repositories	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for optical and scientific repositories. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Optical lantern goods importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Optical lantern goods importers imported and supplied optical lantern goods, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Opticians	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Opticians supplied optical instruments and spectacles and, depending on period and practitioner, tested or advised on vision.
Ore Crushing and Testing Works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Industrial premises or works carrying out the activity described by the Sands heading “Ore Crushing and Testing Works”.
Organ Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Organ Builders built, installed, tuned and repaired pipe organs and their mechanical components.
Organ builders and importers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Constructed and managed building work, often coordinating several trades on houses and commercial premises.
Organ Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought organ into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Ostrich Feather Dyers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ostrich feather dyers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Outfitters (See Clothiers) directory cross-reference	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Cross-reference heading	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as outfitters; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Oven and stove makers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought oven and stove makers and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Oyster Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Oyster Merchants bought and sold oyster, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Oyster Saloons	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for oyster saloons. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Packing Case Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Packing Case Makers made packing case for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Paint Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured paint for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Paint Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought paint material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Painters' brush manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured painters' brush for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Painters' material importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Painters' material importers imported and supplied painters' material, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Painters, decorators, etc.	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for painters, decorators, etc.. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Painters, Glaziers, &c.	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Painted buildings and fittings and cut, fitted or repaired window glass.
Painting Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in painting, privately or through schools and academies.
Paling Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Paling Makers made split or sawn timber palings used for fences and boundary enclosures.
Palliasse makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Palliasse makers made palliasse, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Paper Bag Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Paper Bag Makers made paper bag for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Paper Box Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Paper Box Makers made paper box for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Paper box manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Paper box manufacturers manufactured paper box for commercial sale or industrial use.
Paper Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought paper into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Paper Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Paper Makers made paper for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Paper manufacturers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured paper for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Paper Pattern Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Paper Pattern Makers made paper pattern for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Paper pattern makers and agents	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with paper pattern makers and. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Paper Rulers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for paper rulers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Paperhanging Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought paperhanging into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Paperhangings—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for paperhangings—importers of. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Parcel Delivery Services	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for parcel delivery services. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Parliamentary Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with parliamentary. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Passenger Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with passenger. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Passover Breadmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Passover Breadmakers made unleavened bread, especially matzo, for Jewish Passover observance.
Pastoralists' Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Pastoralists' Agents acted as agents or intermediaries in the business described by the historical directory heading “Pastoralists' Agents”.
Pastry Cooks	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Pastry Cooks made pastries, cakes, pies and other baked or confectionery goods.
Pastrycooks, wholesale and retail	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Pastrycooks, wholesale and retail”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Patent Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with patent. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Patent Medicine Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought patent medicine into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Pattern Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Pattern Makers made pattern for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Pavement Light Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Pavement Light Manufacturers made glazed or prismatic pavement lights that admitted daylight into basements and underground rooms.
Pawnbrokers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Pawnbrokers lent money against personal goods left as security and sold unredeemed pledged items.
Pearl Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Pearl Brokers”.
Pearl, Stud and Button Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured pearl, stud and button for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Pedigree Stock Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with pedigree stock. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Perambulator Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Perambulator Makers made perambulator for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Perambulator makers and importers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought perambulator makers and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Perfumers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for perfumers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Photographers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Photographers made photographic portraits and other images using cameras, glass plates or film and chemical processing.
Photographic Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought photographic material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Photographic materials and stock importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Photographic materials and stock importers imported and supplied photographic materials and stock, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Phrenologists	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for phrenologists. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Physicians and Surgeons	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Qualified medical practitioners who diagnosed illness, prescribed treatment and performed surgical procedures.
Piano Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought piano into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Piano Regulators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for piano regulators. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Piano Repairers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for piano repairers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Piano Tuners	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Piano Tuners adjusted piano string tension and mechanism so the instrument played at correct pitch and worked properly.
Piano Warehouses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Businesses selling, displaying, storing, hiring or sometimes importing pianos and related instruments.
Pianoforte importers and warehousemen	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Pianoforte importers and warehousemen managed or worked in warehouses storing, receiving, dispatching and sometimes wholesaling goods.
Pianoforte tuners and repairers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Pianoforte tuners and repairers adjusted piano string tension and mechanism so the instrument played at correct pitch and worked properly.
Pickle manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Pickle manufacturers manufactured pickle for commercial sale or industrial use.
Picture Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Picture Dealers bought and sold picture, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Picture Moulding Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought picture moulding into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Picture-frame makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Picture-frame makers carved decorative work, applied gold leaf or gilded finishes, and made or decorated picture frames.
Pills—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Pills—Importers of imported and supplied pills—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Pin and Hairpin Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured pin and hairpin for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Places of amusement	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for places of amusement. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Plant Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Plant Merchants bought and sold plant, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Plantation Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with plantation. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Plantation Owners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for plantation owners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Plasterers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for plasterers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Plate Glass Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought plate glass into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Plough importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Plough importers imported and supplied plough, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Plumbers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Plumbers installed and repaired water, drainage and sanitation pipes, fittings and fixtures.
Plumbers' castings	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Plumbers' castings installed and repaired water, drainage and sanitation pipes, fittings and fixtures.
Plumbers' Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought plumbers' material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Plumbers' material importers and manufacturers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Plumbers' material importers and manufacturers installed and repaired water, drainage and sanitation pipes, fittings and fixtures.
Pneumatic Tyre Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Pneumatic Tyre Manufacturers manufactured pneumatic tyre for commercial sale or industrial use.
Pork Butchers	Trade	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for pork butchers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Portable engine importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Portable engine importers imported and supplied portable engine, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Portable railway and rolling stock importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought portable railway and rolling stock into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Portmanteau and trunk makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Portmanteau and trunk makers made portmanteau and trunk for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Portmanteau Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Portmanteau Makers made portmanteau for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Portrait Painters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for portrait painters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Postage stamp dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Postage stamp dealers bought and sold postage stamp, generally through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Potteries	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for potteries. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Potters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Potters shaped and fired clay to make pottery, domestic wares, pipes, tiles or other ceramic goods.
Poudrette and Ammonia Works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Rare / obsolete title	Industrial works that processed human or animal waste into fertiliser products such as poudrette and recovered ammonia.
Poulterers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Poulterers sold poultry, eggs and often game birds, usually through a market or specialist shop.
Poultry dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Poultry dealers bought and sold poultry, generally through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Poultry Farmers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for poultry farmers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Powder and Explosive Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought powder and explosive into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Press Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with press. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Pressure Gauge Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Pressure Gauge Manufacturers manufactured pressure gauge for commercial sale or industrial use.
Printers and Publishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Printers and Publishers printed books, newspapers, notices and other material and also issued or published works for sale.
Printers' Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Printers' Agents acted as intermediaries for printing businesses, taking orders or arranging printing work for customers.
Printers' Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Printers' Brokers”.
Printers' Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to printers'. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Printers' Furnishers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for printers' furnishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Printers' furnishers and material importers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought printers' furnishers and material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Printers' Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought printers' material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Printers—Copperplate	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for printers—copperplate. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Printing Ink Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured printing ink for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Printing Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought printing machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Private Boarding Establishments	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for private boarding establishments. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Private Educational Establishments	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for private educational establishments. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Private Enquiry Offices	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for private enquiry offices. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Process Engravers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for process engravers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Produce Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with produce. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Produce Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Produce Brokers”.
Produce Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Produce Dealers bought and sold produce, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Produce Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Produce Merchants bought and sold agricultural produce such as grain, hay, vegetables, dairy goods or other farm products.
Professors and Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Professors and Teachers provided instruction in schools, academies or privately, covering academic, practical or specialist subjects.
Property Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with property. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Protection Societies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for protection societies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Provision dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Provision dealers bought and sold provision, generally through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Provision Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Provision Merchants sold food provisions and household staples, often in bulk or to ships, institutions and other businesses.
Publishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Publishers prepared, financed and issued books, newspapers or other printed works for public sale or distribution.
Pump, Pipe and Fittings Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought pump, pipe and fittings into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Pump, pipe and fitting—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Pump, pipe and fitting—Importers of imported and supplied pump, pipe and fitting—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Pyrites Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured pyrites for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Pyrotechnists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Pyrotechnists made or arranged fireworks and pyrotechnic displays.
Quarry Owners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for quarry owners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Quarry Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Quarry Proprietors”.
Quarrymen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for quarrymen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Racing Clubs	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for racing clubs. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Rag Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Rag Merchants bought and sold rag, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Railway carriage and rolling stock manufacturers and importers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured railway carriage and rolling stock for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Railway Carriage Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured railway carriage for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Railway Contractors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for railway contractors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Railway Rolling Stock Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought railway rolling stock into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Railway Rolling Stock Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured railway rolling stock for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Razor manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Razor manufacturers manufactured razor for commercial sale or industrial use.
Razor-strop manufacturer	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Razor-strop manufacturer manufactured razor-strop as a commercial or workshop activity.
Reading Rooms	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for reading rooms. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Reaper and Binder Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought reaper and binder into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Reapers and binders—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for reapers and binders—importers of. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Refreshment Rooms	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for refreshment rooms. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Refrigerating experts	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Refrigerating experts”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Refrigerating machinery manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Refrigerating machinery manufacturers manufactured refrigerating machinery for commercial sale or industrial use.
Refrigerating manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Refrigerating manufacturers manufactured refrigerating for commercial sale or industrial use.
Refrigerating Works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Industrial premises or works carrying out the activity described by the Sands heading “Refrigerating Works”.
Refrigerator Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured refrigerator for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Registrars of Births, Deaths and Marriages	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for registrars of births, deaths and marriages. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Registrars of births, marriages and deaths	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for registrars of births, marriages and deaths. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Registry Offices	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Employment or servant-registry businesses that matched workers with employers and recorded vacancies or applicants.
Restaurants	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Commercial eating establishments serving prepared meals to customers.
Restaurants and dining and refreshment rooms	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for restaurants and dining and refreshment rooms. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Revolving Shutter Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Revolving Shutter Makers made revolving shutter for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Rice Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought rice into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Riding Schools	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for riding schools. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Riding Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in riding, privately or through schools and academies.
Robe Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Robe Makers made robe for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Rock Breaker Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured rock breaker for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Rock breakers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Rock breakers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Rocking Horse Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Rocking Horse Makers made children's rocking horses, generally in timber with painted, carved and upholstered details.
Rope Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Rope Makers made rope, cordage and related fibre products for shipping, industry, transport and general use.
Rubber Goods Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought rubber goods into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Rubber Goods Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured rubber goods for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Rubber Stamp Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Rubber Stamp Makers made rubber stamp for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Rubber stamp manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Rubber stamp manufacturers manufactured rubber stamp for commercial sale or industrial use.
Rug Warehouses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for rug warehouses. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Saddle Tree Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Saddle Tree Makers made the rigid internal frames, or trees, around which saddles were constructed.
Saddlers and Harness Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Saddlers and Harness Makers made saddlers and harness, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Saddlers' Ironmongers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Saddlers' Ironmongers supplied metal fittings and hardware used by saddlers and harness makers, such as buckles, rings and bits.
Saddlers' ironmongers—Wholesale and retail	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Saddlers' ironmongers—Wholesale and retail sold iron goods, hardware, tools, fastenings and household or building metalware.
Saddlers—Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Saddlers—Wholesale”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Saddletree makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Saddletree makers made saddletree, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Safe Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought safe into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Safe Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Safe Makers made safe for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Safe Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured safe for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Sail, Tent and Tarpaulin Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Sail, Tent and Tarpaulin Makers cut and sewed heavy canvas to make ship sails, tents, tarpaulins and protective covers.
Sailmakers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Sailmakers made sailmakers, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Salt merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Salt merchants bought and sold salt, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Salt Works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Industrial premises or works carrying out the activity described by the Sands heading “Salt Works”.
Sample case makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Sample case makers made sample case, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Sand blasters	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Sand blasters”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Sanitary Appliance Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sanitary appliance into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sanitary appliances—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Sanitary appliances—Importers of imported and supplied sanitary appliances—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Sanitary Engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Engineers listed under this heading applied technical knowledge to sanitary. Their work could include design, calculation, supervision, inspection or practical problem-solving, depending on the branch of engineering.
Sauce Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured sauce for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Sausage makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Sausage makers made sausage, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Sausage Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured sausage for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Sausage Skin Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sausage skin into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Saw and Moulding Mills	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	High	Historical business category	Timber works that sawed lumber and machined decorative or structural mouldings.
Saw Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought saw into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Saw Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Saw Makers made saw for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Saw Mills	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for saw mills. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Saw Sharpeners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for saw sharpeners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Scale Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Scale Makers made, adjusted and repaired weighing scales and balances.
Schoolmasters and Schoolmistresses	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for schoolmasters and schoolmistresses. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Schools	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	A directory category for businesses or premises operating as schools.
Scientific Instrument Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought scientific instrument into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Scientific Instrument Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Scientific Instrument Makers made scientific instrument for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Scientific instrument makers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought scientific instrument makers and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Scourers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Scourers cleaned and degreased wool, cloth or garments; in some contexts the work overlapped with dyers and textile cleaners.
Scull, Block and Oar Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Scull, Block and Oar Makers made scull, block and oar for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Scullmakers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Scullmakers made scullmakers, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Sculptors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for sculptors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Seal Engravers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Seal Engravers cut seals, dies and signets used to impress identifying designs into wax, paper or other materials.
Sealing Wax Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Sealing Wax Makers made sealing wax for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Seed Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Seed Merchants bought and sold seed, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Seedsmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as seedsmen; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Self-raising flour manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Self-raising flour manufacturers manufactured self-raising flour for commercial sale or industrial use.
Sensitized paper manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Sensitized paper manufacturers manufactured sensitized paper for commercial sale or industrial use.
Sewing Cotton Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with sewing cotton. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Sewing cotton agents and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sewing cotton agents and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sewing Cotton Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sewing cotton into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sewing Machine Agents & Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Sewing Machine Agents & Manufacturers manufactured sewing machine agents & for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Sewing machine agents and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sewing machine agents and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sewing Machine Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sewing machine into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sewing Machine Repairers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for sewing machine repairers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Sewing Silk Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured sewing silk for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Shale and oil companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for shale and oil companies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Shale Oil Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in shale oil. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Sheep and Cattle Salesmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for sheep and cattle salesmen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Sheep Dip Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sheep dip into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sheet Glass Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sheet glass into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sheet Metal Workers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for sheet metal workers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Shinglers and Slaters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as shinglers and slaters; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Ship Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Ship Brokers”.
Ship Furnishers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for ship furnishers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Shipbrokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for shipbrokers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Shipbuilders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Shipbuilders built and repaired ships, coordinating timber, iron and marine trades in a shipyard.
Shipchandlers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Merchants supplying ships with stores, rope, hardware, food, tools and other voyage requirements.
Shipowners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for shipowners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Shipping Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Shipping Agents acted as commercial representatives or intermediaries in shipping-related business.
Shipsmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Blacksmiths specialising in ironwork for ships, wharves and marine fittings.
Shipwrights	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for shipwrights. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Shirtmakers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Shirtmakers cut, sewed and finished shirts, often to order or for retail sale.
Shorthand Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in shorthand, privately or through schools and academies.
Shorthand Writers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for shorthand writers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Showcase Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Showcase Makers made showcase for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Shuttermakers (revolving)	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Shuttermakers (revolving) made shuttermakers (revolving), usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Signwriters	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Hand-painted or lettered signs, shopfronts, boards and commercial displays.
Silk Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought silk into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Silk importers and mercers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for silk importers and mercers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Silk Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured silk for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Silk Mercers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for silk mercers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Silver Mining Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in silver mining. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Silverers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for silverers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Silversmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for silversmiths. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Singing Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in singing, privately or through schools and academies.
Skating Rinks	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for skating rinks. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Skin and Hide Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Skin and Hide Merchants bought and sold skin and hide, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Skittle Ball Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Skittle Ball Makers made skittle ball for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Slate Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Slate Merchants bought and sold slate, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Slaters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as shinglers and slaters; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Slipper makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Slipper makers made slipper, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Slippermakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for slippermakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Sluicing Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in sluicing. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Small Goodsmen (Wholesale)	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Small Goodsmen (Wholesale)”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Smelters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for smelters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Soap and Candlemakers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as soap and candlemakers; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Societies—Miscellaneous	Directory category	Not applicable	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A directory catch-all for entries that did not fit one of the named trade or professional categories.
Soda Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured soda for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Soda Water Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought soda water machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Sodawater machinery importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought sodawater machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
South Sea Island Traders	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for south sea island traders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Spice Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought spice into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Spice Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured spice for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Spice manufacturers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured spice for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Spiral Spring Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured spiral spring for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Spoke manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Spoke manufacturers manufactured spoke for commercial sale or industrial use.
Sponge and chamois merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Sponge and chamois merchants bought and sold sponge and chamois, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Sports Depots	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for sports depots. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Spring manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured spring for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Squatters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for squatters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stained Glass Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Stained Glass Makers made stained glass for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Staircase Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for staircase builders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stampers and piercers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Stampers and piercers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Starch Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured starch for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Station supplies	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Station supplies”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Stationers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Stationers sold paper, envelopes, writing materials, office supplies and often books or printed forms.
Stationers, Manufacturing	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for stationers, manufacturing. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stationers, Wholesale	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for stationers, wholesale. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stationers—Law	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Stationers—Law supplied specialised stationery, forms, document papers and copying materials used by lawyers and courts.
Stationers—Wholesale and manufacturing	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Stationers—Wholesale and manufacturing sold paper, envelopes, writing materials, office supplies and often books or printed forms.
Staymakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for staymakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Steam Navigation Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in steam navigation. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Steam pump manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Steam pump manufacturers manufactured steam pump for commercial sale or industrial use.
Steam Tug Owners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for steam tug owners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Steamboat Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Steamboat Proprietors”.
Steamship builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Constructed and managed building work, often coordinating several trades on houses and commercial premises.
Steamship Owners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for steamship owners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Steel and iron pipe makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Steel and iron pipe makers made steel and iron pipe, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Steel casting manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Steel casting manufacturers manufactured steel casting for commercial sale or industrial use.
Steel Engravers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for steel engravers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Steel Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Steel Merchants bought and sold steel, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Steel Wire Rope Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Steel Wire Rope Makers made steel wire rope for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Stencil cutters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for stencil cutters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stencil Plate Cutters	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for stencil plate cutters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stereotypers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Stereotypers produced solid duplicate printing plates from composed type, allowing pages to be reproduced without keeping the original type locked up.
Stevedores	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Organised and performed the loading and unloading of ships and the handling of cargo on wharves.
Stock and Share Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Stock and Share Brokers”.
Stock and station agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents dealing in investments and, in the Australian context, livestock, rural property and pastoral station business.
Stock, Share, and Station Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents dealing in investments and, in the Australian context, livestock, rural property and pastoral station business.
Stone Crushing Works	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Industrial works that crushed rock into graded stone or aggregate for roads, concrete and construction.
Stone Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Stone Merchants bought and sold stone, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Stone, &c., merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Stone, &c., merchants bought and sold stone, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Storekeepers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for storekeepers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stores (bonded and free)	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Rare / obsolete title	Customs-controlled warehouses where imported goods could be stored before duty was paid.
Stove Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought stove into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Stove Setters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for stove setters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Stovemakers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Stovemakers made and repaired cooking or heating stoves, commonly from cast or sheet metal.
Straw Hat Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Straw Hat Makers made straw hat for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Straw Hat Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured straw hat for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Stripper importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Stripper importers imported and supplied stripper, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Submarine Divers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for submarine divers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Sugar Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in sugar. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Sugar companies and refiners	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for sugar companies and refiners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Sugar Refiners	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Sugar Refiners processed raw sugar to remove impurities and produce refined sugar for sale.
Surgeons	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Medical practitioners specialising in operative treatment of injury and disease.
Surgical Instrument Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought surgical instrument into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Surveyors	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Surveyors measured and mapped land, boundaries and features for property, engineering and development work.
Surveyors—Marine	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Inspected ships, cargoes or marine equipment and reported on condition, seaworthiness, damage or value.
Surveyors—Mining	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for surveyors—mining. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Swimming Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in swimming, privately or through schools and academies.
Tailors	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tailors cut, fitted and sewed made-to-measure clothing, especially men's garments.
Tallow Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Tallow Brokers”.
Tallow Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tallow Merchants bought and sold tallow, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Tallow merchants and refiners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tallow merchants and refiners bought and sold tallow, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Tallow Refiners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Purified rendered animal fat for use in soap, candles, lubricants and other industrial products.
Tank makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Tank makers made tank, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Tankmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tankmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tanners and Curriers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Converted hides into leather and then dressed and finished the leather for use by other trades.
Tannery Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought tannery machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Tar and Asphalt Paving Contractors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tar and asphalt paving contractors. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tarpaulin makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tarpaulin makers cut and sewed heavy canvas to make ship sails, tents, tarpaulins and protective covers.
Taxidermists	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taxidermists prepared and mounted animal skins to create preserved specimens for display, study or collections.
Tea Brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Commercial intermediaries who arranged transactions in the goods or interests described by the Sands heading “Tea Brokers”.
Tea Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tea Dealers bought and sold tea, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Tea Gardens	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for tea gardens. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tea Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tea Merchants bought and sold tea, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Teachers provided instruction in schools, academies or privately, covering academic, practical or specialist subjects.
Teachers of shorthand	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in shorthand, privately or through schools and academies.
Teachers of singing	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in singing, privately or through schools and academies.
Teachers of writing	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Teachers of writing provided instruction in schools, academies or privately, covering academic, practical or specialist subjects.
Telegraph Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in telegraph. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Telegraphic Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents or offices that accepted, transmitted or handled telegram business on behalf of customers or telegraph services.
Temperance Hotels	Business / establishment	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for temperance hotels. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tent Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tent Makers made tent for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Terra Cotta Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured terra cotta for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Thread Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured thread for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Threshing machine importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Threshing machine importers imported and supplied threshing machine, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Ticket Writers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Specialist hand-letterers who produced price tickets, show cards, notices and display signs for shops and businesses.
Tile and Pipe Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tile and Pipe Makers made tile and pipe for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Tile importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought tile into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Tile Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured tile for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Timber importer and exporter	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Timber importer and exporter imported and supplied timber, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Timber Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Timber Merchants bought and sold timber, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Tin Mining Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	This Sands heading grouped companies involved in tin mining. The precise services, products or scale of business varied between firms.
Tin Plate Workers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tin plate workers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tin Tag Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured tin tag for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Tinsmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tinsmiths made and repaired thin sheet-metal goods, traditionally using tinplate for household, commercial and building items.
Tinsmiths and tinplate workers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tinsmiths and tinplate workers made and repaired thin sheet-metal goods, traditionally using tinplate for household, commercial and building items.
Tinsmiths' Tool Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured tinsmiths' tool for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Tinware Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tinware Dealers bought and sold tinware, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Tinware dealers and manufacturers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tinware dealers and manufacturers bought and sold tinware, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Tinware Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured tinware for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Tobacco and Cigar Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tobacco and Cigar Merchants bought and sold tobacco and cigar, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Tobacco and cigar merchants, manufacturers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tobacco and cigar merchants, manufacturers and importers bought and sold importers and, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Tobacco and Snuff Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tobacco and Snuff Manufacturers manufactured tobacco and snuff for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Tobacco Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought tobacco into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Tobacconists	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tobacconists sold tobacco products, pipes, cigars and related smoking goods.
Tobacconists' sundries men	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tobacconists' sundries men sold tobacco products, pipes, cigars and related smoking goods.
Tobacconists' Sundriesmen	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tobacconists' sundriesmen. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tool Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought tool into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Tool Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tool Makers made tool for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Tool makers and importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought tool makers and into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Tool Sharpeners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tool sharpeners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tourist Bureau Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with tourist bureau. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
Tourists' bureau and agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Tourists' bureau and agents acted as agents or intermediaries in the business described by the historical directory heading “Tourists' bureau and agents”.
Toy Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Toy Dealers bought and sold toy, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Toy Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought toy into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Traction engine importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Traction engine importers imported and supplied traction engine, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Trade Assignees	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for trade assignees. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Trade Mark Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Specialists who assisted businesses to register and protect trade marks and related commercial rights.
Trade Protection Societies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	Commercial associations that shared credit information and helped members manage bad debts and debtor risk.
Trade-marks agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Trade-marks agents acted as agents or intermediaries in the business described by the historical directory heading “Trade-marks agents”.
Tradesmen's Co-operative Societies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical business category	The Sands directory used this heading for tradesmen's co-operative societies. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tram Car Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tram car builders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Tramcar builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tramcar builders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Translators	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Translated written material from one language into another for commercial, legal, literary or personal use.
Treacle and Syrup Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Treacle and Syrup Makers made treacle and syrup for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Tricycle Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tricycle Makers made tricycle for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Tripe Dressers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Tripe Dressers cleaned, prepared and processed animal stomach lining for sale as food.
Trunk Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Trunk Makers made trunk for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Truss Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Truss Makers made truss for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Trustee Companies	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A business or company operating in the field described by the historical directory heading “Trustee Companies”.
Tube Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured tube for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Tug owners	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for tug owners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Turners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Turners shaped wood, metal or other materials on a lathe to make round or cylindrical components and finished objects.
Turners—Wood, &c.	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Turners—Wood, &c. shaped wood, metal or other materials on a lathe to make round or cylindrical components and finished objects.
Turret clock manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Turret clock manufacturers manufactured turret clock for commercial sale or industrial use.
Tweed Manufacturers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Tweed Manufacturers manufactured tweed for sale, usually in a workshop or factory setting.
Twine merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Twine merchants bought and sold twine, commonly in wholesale or specialist commercial trade.
Type Founders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Type Founders cast metal printing type and related pieces used by letterpress printers.
Typefounders and importers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Typefounders and importers cast metal printing type and related pieces used by letterpress printers.
Typefounders' engineers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Typefounders' engineers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Typewriter Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Typewriter Importers imported and sold typewriting machines, then a relatively new office technology.
Typists	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / clerical	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Typists operated typewriters to prepare correspondence, reports, forms and other business documents, often as clerical workers.
Umbrella and Parasol Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Umbrella and Parasol Makers made umbrella and parasol, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Underclothing Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought underclothing into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Underclothing manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Underclothing manufacturers manufactured underclothing for commercial sale or industrial use.
Undertakers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Undertakers arranged funerals and the preparation, transport and burial of the deceased; broadly the modern funeral director.
Undertakers' furnishers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Undertakers' furnishers arranged funerals and the preparation, transport and burial of the deceased; broadly the modern funeral director.
Underwriters	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for underwriters. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Universal Providers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Large general retailers advertising an exceptionally broad range of household, clothing and consumer goods.
Upholsterers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Upholsterers made, repaired and covered padded furniture, seats, cushions and soft furnishings.
Valuators	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for valuators. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Van Proprietors	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Owners or operators of the service or business described by the Sands heading “Van Proprietors”.
Varnish Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured varnish for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Venetian Blind Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Venetian Blind Makers made venetian blind for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Ventilator Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured ventilator for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Veterinary instrument maker	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Veterinary instrument maker made veterinary instrument, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Veterinary Surgeons	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	A historical directory category for people or businesses working as veterinary surgeons; the exact duties could vary by business and period.
Vinegar Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured vinegar for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Wagon Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wagon builders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Walking Stick Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought walking stick into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Walking stick importers and makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Walking stick importers and makers made walking stick importers and for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Walking Stick Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Walking Stick Makers made walking stick for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Wardrobe Dealers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wardrobe Dealers bought and sold wardrobe, usually through a specialist retail or wholesale business.
Warehousemen	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Warehousemen managed or worked in warehouses storing, receiving, dispatching and sometimes wholesaling goods.
Washing Machine Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought washing machine into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Watch and clock makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Watch and clock makers made clock, generally by hand or with workshop machinery, and often also repaired or fitted them.
Watch-case makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Watch-case makers made watch-case, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Watchmakers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Watchmakers made, serviced and repaired watches and other small timepieces.
Watchmakers' Material Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought watchmakers' material into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Watchmakers' material—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for watchmakers' material—importers of. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Water Meter Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Water Meter Makers made water meter for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Water meter manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Water meter manufacturers manufactured water meter for commercial sale or industrial use.
Waterproof Clothing Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured waterproof clothing for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Weighbridge Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured weighbridge for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Weighbridges	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Weighbridges”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Weighing Machine Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured weighing machine for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Wharfingers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Wharfingers managed or operated a wharf, including berthing, storage, cargo handling and collection of wharfage charges.
Wharves	Business / establishment	Mixed / owner-operator business	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Wharves”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Wheelbarrow Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wheelbarrow Makers made wheelbarrow for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Wheelwrights	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Wheelwrights made and repaired wooden wheels and related parts for carts, wagons and carriages.
Whip makers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Whip makers made whip, usually as a skilled craft, workshop or manufacturing activity.
Whipmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for whipmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Whisky Agents	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Agents under this heading represented clients or businesses in matters connected with whisky. They commonly arranged transactions, introductions, sales or other commercial business on a client's behalf.
White Ant and Vermin Destroyers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Pest-control operators who treated buildings and property for termites and other vermin.
White Lead and Paint Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured white lead and paint for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Whitesmiths	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Metalworkers who specialised in lighter or finished ironwork, often filing, polishing, tinning or making finer iron goods.
Whiting manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Whiting manufacturers manufactured whiting for commercial sale or industrial use.
Wholesale Fruiterers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wholesale fruiterers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Wigmakers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wigmakers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Windmill and Pump Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought windmill and pump into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Window Blind Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Window Blind Makers made window blind for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Window cleaners	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Window cleaners”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Wine and Spirit Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wine and Spirit Merchants bought and sold wine and spirit, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Wine and spirit merchants and importers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wine and spirit merchants and importers bought and sold importers and, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Wine Growers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wine growers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Wine Merchants (Australian)	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Merchants specialising in Australian-produced wines.
Wine Retailers	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wine retailers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Winegrowers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Variable	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	A historical Sands directory category for people or businesses described as “Winegrowers”. The precise duties could vary by business and period.
Winegrowers' requisites—Importers of	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Winegrowers' requisites—Importers of imported and supplied winegrowers' requisites—importers of, usually to merchants, businesses or retail customers.
Winemakers' Requisite Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought winemakers' requisite into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Winnowing machinery importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought winnowing machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Wire Mattress Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wire Mattress Makers made wire mattress for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Wire mattress manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Wire mattress manufacturers manufactured wire mattress for commercial sale or industrial use.
Wire Netting Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured wire netting for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Wire Rope Makers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wire Rope Makers made wire rope for sale or for use by other trades and businesses. The materials, tools and methods varied according to the product and period.
Wireworkers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wireworkers made products from wire, such as guards, screens, baskets, fencing components and other formed wire goods.
Wood and coal merchants	Commercial / service occupation	Service / retail	Low–Medium	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wood and coal merchants bought and sold coal and wood, commonly in wholesale or bulk commercial trade.
Wood and ivory turners	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wood and ivory turners. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Wood Benders	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wood benders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Wood Carvers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wood carvers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Wood Engravers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wood engravers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Wood process and metal engravers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wood process and metal engravers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Woodworking Machinery Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought woodworking machinery into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Wool brokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wool brokers acted as agents between wool growers and buyers, arranging the sale, valuation and marketing of wool.
Wool Drapers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wool drapers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Wool Importers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Importers under this heading brought wool into Australia and supplied it to retailers, businesses or other customers. Some also acted as local agents for overseas manufacturers.
Wool Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured wool for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Wool Merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Wool Merchants bought and sold wool, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Wool Scourers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for wool scourers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Woolbrokers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Woolbrokers acted as agents between wool growers and buyers, arranging the sale, valuation and marketing of wool.
Woollen drapers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for woollen drapers. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Woollen manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured woollen for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Woollen merchants	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Woollen merchants bought and sold wool, commonly in wholesale or larger-scale commercial trade.
Woolpressers	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Rare / obsolete title	Compressed fleeces or wool into dense bales for storage and transport.
Woolwashers	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Washed raw wool or fleeces to remove grease, dirt and other impurities before further processing.
Writing masters	Profession	White-collar / education	Low	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Teachers specialising in handwriting, penmanship and business writing.
Writing Teachers	Profession	White-collar / professional	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Taught or instructed people in writing, privately or through schools and academies.
Yacht and Boat Builders	Trade	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	The Sands directory used this heading for yacht and boat builders. The precise work, services or business activities could vary between individual listings and establishments.
Zinc Founders	Commercial / service occupation	White-collar / commercial	Low	Rare / obsolete title	Zinc Founders cast or fabricated zinc and zinc-alloy goods for building, manufacturing or decorative use.
Zinc shavings manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Historical directory wording / modern equivalent may exist	Zinc shavings manufacturers manufactured zinc shavings for commercial sale or industrial use.
Zinc Tablet Manufacturers	Trade / industrial business	Blue-collar / skilled or industrial	High	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Businesses listed under this heading manufactured zinc tablet for commercial sale. The scale of production and methods used varied between establishments and over time.
Zinc workers	Trade	Skilled trade / craft	Low	Still recognisable or modern equivalent exists	Fabricated, installed or repaired sheet-metal goods made from galvanised iron or zinc, often for roofs, tanks and building fittings.